![]() In vitro analysis of biodegradation, bioactivity, and biocompatibility were also performed. The scaffolds were analyzed by Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Mechanical Compression test to determine the composition, morphology, and mechanical properties of each material. Two methodologies were used for the scaffolds functionalization: (I) an immersion process in a solution with the protein and (II) the protein direct addition during the scaffold synthesis. This study used the extrapalleal fluid protein from Mytilus californiensis because it increases biological processes that support bone regeneration. This research is focused on the evaluation of the properties of Chitosan (Ch)/Polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffolds with the Mytilus californiensis protein by Thermally Induced Phase Separation (TIPS). As a result, the development of bioactive three-dimensional scaffolds for bone regeneration has become a key area of study within tissue engineering. Under DUI, maternally (F genome) and paternally (M genome) transmitted mtDNAs yield two distinct gender-associated mtDNA lineages.ĭoubly uniparental inheritance (DUI) is an atypical system of animal mtDNA inheritance found only in some bivalves.Nowadays, the treatment for bone damage remains a significant challenge. The oldest distinct M and F genomes are found in freshwater mussels (order Unionoida). Comparative analyses of unionoid mitochondrial genomes and a robust phylogenetic framework are necessary to elucidate the origin, function and molecular evolutionary consequences of DUI. Herein, F and M genomes from three unionoid species, Venustaconcha ellipsiformis, Pyganodon grandis and Quadrula quadrula have been sequenced. ResultsĬompared to their unionoid F counterparts, the M genomes contain some unique features including a novel localization of the trnH gene, an inversion of the atp8-trnD genes and a unique 3'coding extension of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit II gene.Ĭomparative genomic analyses were carried out on these six genomes along with two F and one M unionoid genomes from GenBank (F and M genomes of Inversidens japanensis and F genome of Lampsilis ornata). One or more of these unique M genome features could be causally associated with paternal transmission. ![]() Unionoid bivalves are characterized by extreme intraspecific sequence divergences between gender-associated mtDNAs with an average of 50% for V. quadrula (uncorrected amino acid p-distances). Phylogenetic analyses of 12 protein-coding genes from 29 bivalve and five outgroup mt genomes robustly indicate bivalve monophyly and the following branching order within the autolamellibranch bivalves: ((Pteriomorphia, Veneroida) Unionoida). The basal nature of the Unionoida within the autolamellibranch bivalves and the previously hypothesized single origin of DUI suggest that (1) DUI arose in the ancestral autolamellibranch bivalve lineage and was subsequently lost in multiple descendant lineages and (2) the mitochondrial genome characteristics observed in unionoid bivalves could more closely resemble the DUI ancestral condition. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is the only extranuclear genome in animal cytoplasm.ĭescriptions and comparisons presented in this paper are fundamental to a more complete understanding regarding the origins and consequences of DUI. Located in the matrix of mitochondria, metazoan mtDNA is normally a small circular DNA molecule about 14-16 kilobases (kb) long usually encoding the same 37 genes ( but see for exceptions). Typically, all mtDNAs in the zygote come from the oocyte and even though evidence for occasional paternal leakage has been reported, animal mtDNA is thought to strictly follow maternal inheritance. This clonal inheritance coupled with the successive cell divisions that represent sequential bottlenecks for the mitochondrial population result in an essentially homoplasmic state for mtDNA. An extreme exception to the paradigm of strict maternal inheritance of animal mtDNA (SMI) is found in three bivalve lineages (i.e., the orders Mytiloida, Unionoida and Veneroida), which possess an unusual system termed doubly uniparental inheritance of mtDNA (DUI) (see for reviews). ![]() In DUI-possessing organisms, distinct gender-associated mitochondrial DNA lineages coexist: a female-transmitted (F) genome and a male-transmitted (M) genome.
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